England

England is an independent island nation located in the north-western part of Europe.  It is part of the United Kingdom. Commonly referred to as Britain, its currency is the pound sterling. Its official language is English.

Geography

England comprises most of the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. It also includes several small islands of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. England borders Scotland to the north, and Wales to the west.

Due to the great rivers and small streams that weave their way through the country, England is a fertile land. As a result, the generosity of its soil has supported a thriving agricultural economy for millennia.

No place in England is more than 75 miles (120 km) from the sea. And even the farthest points in the country are no more than a day’s journey by road or rail from London. 

History

Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united to form England during the early medieval period. Subsequently, England has long comprised several distinct regions. Each region is different in dialect, economy, religion, and disposition. As a result, even today many English people identify themselves by the regions or shires from which they come, be it Yorkshire, the West Country, or the Midlands. Moreover, they retain strong ties to those regions even if they live elsewhere.

Yet, commonalities are more important than these differences, many of which began to disappear in the era after World War II. This was increasingly the case as England transformed from a rural into a highly urbanized society.

The country’s island location has been of critical importance to the development of the English character. Its culture fosters the seemingly contradictory qualities of candor and reserve along with conformity and eccentricity. Its values include social harmony and good manners which ensure orderly relations in a densely populated island landscape.

In the early 19th century England became the epicenter of a worldwide Industrial Revolution and soon the world’s most industrialized country. Cities such as Manchester, Birmingham, and Liverpool converted raw materials into manufactured goods for a global market, drawing resources from every settled continent.

Meanwhile London, the country’s capital, emerged as one of the world’s preeminent cities and the hub of a political, economic, and cultural network that extended far beyond England’s shores. Today the metropolitan area of London encompasses much of southeastern England and continues to serve as the financial center of Europe. It is also a center of innovation, particularly in popular culture.

Government

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy state which has a parliamentary democracy. Queen Elizabeth II is the current monarch. Ruling Britain since 1952, she is the longest-serving monarch in history. While England’s form of government acts as a democracy, the Queen of England is officially the head of state. She also has many titular roles. In practice, however, she has little political power or influence. The prime minister and parliament hold the true influence and power.

FRANCE

Situated in Western Europe, France encompasses medieval cities, alpine villages and Mediterranean beaches. Paris, its capital, is famed for its fashion houses, classical art museums including the Louvre, and monuments like the Eiffel Tower. The country is also renowned for its wines and sophisticated cuisine. Its currency is the Euro, and its official language is French.

Geography

The lengthy borders of France touch Germany and Belgium in the north, the Atlantic Ocean in the west, and the Pyrenees mountains and Spain in the south. For this reason, France has long been a gateway between the continent’s northern and southern regions. It also borders the Mediterranean sea in the southeast, and the Alps, Switzerland, and Italy in the east. It is the largest country in Western Europe.

France has a very diverse landscape. The French Riviera on the southeast coast contrasts the towering snow-capped mountains which rise to the sky in the south and east. Europe’s tallest peak, Monte Blanc, is found in the French Alps, standing tall at a massive 4,810 meters (15,781 feet).

The agricultural epicenter of Europe, wide fertile plains dominate most of northern and western France. Conversely, France’s southern interior features the sprawling, forested plateau of the Massif Central, comprised of a range of ancient mountains and extinct volcanoes.

History

There is evidence that France is one of the oldest nations on Earth. Over time, Celtic tribes from central Europe moved into the region, and when the Romans occupied the territory in the second century B.C., they named it Gaul. 

Julius Caesar established full Roman control over Gaul in 51 B.C., but Rome was in decline by 400 A.D. Eventually neighboring tribes attacked Gaul. These included Visigoths, Vandals and the Germanic Franks, from which France would eventually get its name. In 843 A.D. a treaty created the territory of West Francia, which would later become France.

Over the next thousand years, a series of powerful kings ruled West Francia. Several wars were fought. One of the most notable was The Hundred Years War, from 1337 to 1453. In 1789, a violent period of change called the French Revolution began, and the monarchy was eventually overthrown.

Napoleon Bonaparte, a general during the French Revolution, declared himself leader of France in 1799. Due to his quest for power a campaign of wars was launched against neighboring countries. Consequently, he built a large French empire that ruled over much of continental Europe.

France’s domination in Europe finally came to an end in 1815, when Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. The Arc de Triomphe in Paris was built to honor those who fought and died for France in the Napoleonic Wars and French Revolution.

France subsequently suffered great losses in both World War I and World War II.  Nonetheless, it has since emerged as an important and prosperous world power.

Government

Over the years, France has been through many political crises. Its current government is a combination of presidential and parliamentary systems. The people elect the president, who is head of state. The president in turn chooses a prime minister, who works with the elected parliament to pass laws.

SPAIN

Situated on Europe’s Iberian Peninsula, Spain includes 17 autonomous regions with diverse geography and cultures. Capital city Madrid is home to the Royal Palace and Prado museum, housing works by European masters. Segovia has a medieval castle (the Alcázar) and an intact Roman aqueduct. In Catalonia, Antoni Gaudí’s whimsical modernist landmarks define the capital, Barcelona. Spain’s currency is the Euro, and its official language is Spanish.

Geography

Spain occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula, stretching south from the Pyrenees Mountains to the Strait of Gibraltar, which separating Spain from Africa. To the east lies the Mediterranean Sea, including Spain’s Balearic Islands. Spain also rules two cities in North Africa, as well as the Canary Islands in the Atlantic.

Mountain ranges surround and crisscross the dry plateau which covers the interior of Spain. Rivers which run to the coasts create good farm land but that part of the country gets extremely hot in summer and very cold and dry in the winter. Droughts are common.

Plants and trees grow so well in Galicia and along the Bay of Biscay on the northwestern coast, that the area is called Green Spain. The mountains farther inland frequently trap rain, allowing beech and oak trees to flourish. The coastline, on the other hand, is broken up by numerous coves and inlets.

Sirocco winds originating in northern Africa sweep the fertile Andalusian and the Pyrenees along the southern and eastern coasts of Spain. As a result, temperatures along the Mediterranean coast are milder than in the interior.

History

Settlers have migrated to Spain from Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean since the dawn of history. The Phoenicians, who came in the 8th century B.C. called the peninsula “Span,” or hidden land. The Romans conquered Spain by the first century B.C.

Spain became mostly Christian under the Romans, but the Vandals and the Visigoths who followed them were Germanic rulers from Europe who fought among themselves. In A.D. 711 Muslims from Africa invaded Spain.

Islamic culture spread across Spain as Muslim rulers introduced new crops and irrigation systems. Consequently, trading increased. In the 10th century advances in mathematics, medicine, and philosophy marked the golden age of Islamic rule in Spain. But by 1492 Christian kingdoms were conquering the Muslims in northern Spain and spreading the Catholic religion.

Silver from the Americas later enriched Spain, which grew increasingly powerful. However, it subsequently lost land and power in the Napoleonic Wars, which ended in 1815.

More than 500,000 people died in the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s. The victorious General Francisco Franco ruled as a brutal dictator until his death in 1975. Soon after, Spain began to transform itself into a modern, industrial, and democratic European nation.

Government

Spain is a parliamentary monarchy, where the king and the elected president share power. Although there is a national parliament, each of its 17 regions manages its own schools, hospitals, and other public services. Consequently, Spain is one of the most decentralized democracies in Europe

Excepting France, Spain attracts more tourists with its vibrant, historic cities and sunny beaches, than any other European country. As a result, services to the tourism industry drive Spain’s economy, the eighth largest in the world. 

MONACO

A picturesque coastal nation, Monaco attracts many visitors to its shores. As a harbor city, Monaco has had a colorful past. Today it serves as a quiet haven for the rich and famous. Its residents enjoy not only the climate but also the principality’s tax-free status.  Its currency is the Euro, and its official language is French.

Geography

Monaco is the second-smallest independent state in the world after Vatican City. Its terrain is a very hilly, rugged and rocky.  The country sits on the Mediterranean Coast and is almost entirely urban.

History

In 6 BC Greeks inhabited the sheltered harbor of Monaco, naming it Monoikos. Legend has it that Hercules passed through Monaco where the Temple of Monoikos was built to honor him.

Historically Monaco was part of France but in 1215, through a land grant from Emperor Henry VI, it became a colony of Genoa. The Grimaldi family settled in Monaco in 1297 and in 1419 acquired it from the French ruling family of Aragon. Ancestors of the Grimaldi have controlled the principality for over 715 years, although Monaco has been under Spanish, Italian and Sardinian protection.

In 1793 French revolutionary troops captured Monaco, keeping it until 1814. It was then that the Grimaldi family returned to power.

Government

Today a constitutional monarchy governs Monaco. However, it is a protectorate of France.

ITALY

Easily recognizable as the boot-shaped peninsula that juts out of southern Europe, Italy touches the Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and other waters. Its location has played an important role in its history. Italy’s currency is the Euro, and its official language is Italian.

Geography

The sea surrounds Italy and mountains crisscross the interior, dividing it into regions. The Alps cut across the top of the country and are streaked with long, thin glacial lakes.

From the western end of the Alps, the Apennines mountains stretch south down the entire peninsula. West of the Apennines are wooded hills, home to many of Italy’s historic cities, including Rome.

In the south are hot, dry coast lands and fertile plains. Olives, almonds, and figs grow in this area, part of the Mediterranean Basin.

History

Italy’s first societies emerged around 1200 B.C. About 400 years later Greeks settled in the south and Etruscans arose in central Italy. By the sixth century B.C. the Etruscans had created a group of states called Etruria. Meanwhile, Latin and Sabine people south of Etruria merged to form a strong city-state called Rome.

Etruscan kings ruled Rome for nearly a hundred years. Romans finally tossed out the Etruscans in 510 B.C. and went on to conquer the whole peninsula. As a result of Rome’s rise to power, the Italian peninsula became the center of a huge empire that lasted for more than 400 years.

At its greatest extent, in A.D. 117, the Roman Empire stretched from Portugal to Syria to Britain to North Africa. But by the fourth century A.D. it was in decline. Finally, in 395 the empire was split in two. In 476 Germanic tribes from the north toppled the last emperor.

Italy’s location on the Mediterranean linked it with the trade routes of the ancient civilizations that developed in the region. In the 12th century Italian city-states began to rise again and grow rich on trade. But Italy remained a patchwork of territories, with foreign dynasties controlling some of them. Beginning in 1859 an uprising forced the foreigners out, and the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861.

In 1914 Italy took the side of the United Kingdom and the U.S. in World War I. By war’s end the country was in poverty. Consequently, Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party rose to power promising to restore the Roman Empire. He subsequently ruled as a dictator and entered World War II on the side of Germany and Japan. Mussolini was later captured and executed.

Government

Italy is a republic, a state in which the people and their elected representatives hold supreme power. A republic has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.

GREECE

Featuring the longest coastline in Europe, Greece is the southernmost country in Europe. Greece joined the European Union in 1981. Its currency is therefore the Euro. Its official language is Greek.

Geography

The mainland of Greece has rugged mountains, forests, and lakes. The country is also well known for the thousands of islands dotting the blue Aegean Sea to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Ionian Sea to the west.

The country is divided into three geographical regions: the mainland, the islands, and the Peloponnese, which is the peninsula south of the mainland.

The Pindus mountain range on the mainland contains one of the world’s deepest gorges, Vikos Gorge, which plunges 3,600 feet (1,100 meters). In contrast, Mount Olympus is Greece’s highest mountain at 9,570 feet (2,917 meters) above sea level.

History

The first great civilization in Greece was the Minoan culture on the island of Crete around 2000 B.C. Wall paintings found at the ruins of the palace Knossos show people doing back-flips over a charging bull. Myceneans from the mainland conquered the Minoans in 1450 B.C.

During ancient times noblemen ruled the country, which was divided into city-states. The largest were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth. Each state controlled the territory around a single city. They were often at war with each other.

Athens became the most powerful city state. In 508 B.C. democracy was instituted, a new system of rule by the people.

The first Olympic Games were held in the southern city of Olympia in 700 B.C. to honor Zeus, the king of the gods. Men competed in events such as sprinting, long jump, discus, javelin, wrestling, and chariot racing. The Romans banned the games in A.D. 393, but they began again in Athens in 1896.

Foreigners ruled Greece for over 2,000 years, beginning with Romans conquerors in the 2nd century. Greece finally won independence in 1832, after almost 400 years under Turkish rule.

Government

Greece abolished their monarchy in 1975 and became a parliamentary republic. Under the new constitution there is a president and a prime minister. The prime minister has the most power and is leader of the party that has the most seats in the parliament. The president selects cabinet ministers who run government departments. The parliament, called the Vouli, has only one house, with 300 members who are elected every four years.

CROATIA

Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Croatia is a country at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the southeast. Croatia also shares a maritime border with Italy.  Although it became part of the European Union in 2013, the currency of Croatia is still the Kuna. Its official language is Croatian.

Geography

Located in southeast Europe, Croatia is geographically diverse. The crescent-shaped country features low mountains and highlands near the Adriatic coastline, flat plains that hug the Hungarian border, and over a thousand islands. In mountainous regions winters are cold and snowy while summers are mild. The country’s coastal areas have a Mediterranean climate with hot, sunny summers and mild winters. As a result, many of the islands found off this coastline are major tourist areas, as is Dalmatia.

History

Around A.D. 500 the first Croats settled in the area that is today called Croatia. They ruled themselves for many years but in 1091 decided to become part of the Hungarian Empire. When the Ottoman Empire started to expand at the beginning in the 15th century, the Croats became concerned they would be taken over by the Ottomans. So, they asked Archduke Ferdinand if they could join the Austrian Habsburg Empire.

In 1868 Croatia again went under the rule of Hungary. This lasted until World War II when it became part of Yugoslavia. The war brought terrible hardships on the country under German and Italian rule. When it ended, the Communist Party took control of Yugoslavia.

In the early 1990s, communism collapsed throughout Eastern Europe. Yugoslavia became a place of much turmoil as different ethnic groups began to fight for power and independence. Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia and civil war erupted. War raged for many years between the Croatians and the Serbians. In December 1995, peace was finally brought to the regions when the Dayton Agreement was signed.

Government

The Croatian president is head of state, elected by popular vote to a five-year term. The president appoints the prime minister who is head of government. However, parliament must approve that appointment. Croatia’s parliament consists of a 151-seat House of Representatives.